Fluorescein fluorophores have been the most common fluorescent derivatization reagents for covalently labeling proteins. Fluorescein isothiocyanates (FITC) are the predominantly used fluorescein derivatives. But alternative derivatives offer significant advantages. Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl esters react faster than FITC and yield conjugates with higher resistance against hydrolysis. An advantage of fluorescein dichlorotriazine (DTAF) is its direct reactivity with polysaccharides and other alcohols in aqueous solutions at pH greater than nine. 6-carboxy-4',5'-dichloro-2',7'-dimethoxyfluorescein (JOE) is very common as label for automated nucleic acid sequencing. The synthesis of these derivatives typically results in a mixture of isomers, which are almost indistinguishable in both wavelength and intensity, but may differ in the geometry of their binding to proteins. Certain applications may require the single-isomer preparations.
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