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Order](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/quick-order) Cart0 [Home](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en)[Solid State Synthesis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis)Magnetic Properties of Materials # Magnetic Properties of Materials ## Magnetic Properties of Materials Magnetic properties other than diamagnetism, which is present in all substances, arise from the interactions of unpaired electrons. These properties are traditionally found in transition metals, lanthanides, and their compounds due to the unpaired *d* and *f* electrons on the metal. There are three general types of magnetic behaviors: paramagnetism, in which the unpaired electrons are randomly arranged, ferromagnetism, in which the unpaired electrons are all aligned, and antiferromagnetism, in which the unpaired electrons line up opposite of one another. Ferromagnetic materials have an overall magnetic moment, whereas antiferromagnetic materials have a magnetic moment of zero. A compound is defined as being ferrimagnetic if the electron spins are orientated antiparrallel to one another but, due to an inequality in the number of spins in each orientation, there exists an overall magnetic moment. There are also enforced ferromagnetic substances (called spin-glass-like) in which antiferromagnetic materials have pockets of aligned spins (__Figure 1__).  __Figure 1.__Types of magnetism: (A) paramagnetism (B) ferromagnetism (C) antiferromagnetism (D) ferrimagnetism (E) enforced ferromagnetism Magnetic character of materials is typically analyzed relative to its magnetic susceptibility (χ). Magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of magnetization (M) to magnetic field (H). The type of magnetic behavior of a compound can be defined by its value of χ (__Table 1__ for a comparison of magnetic behavior versus χ and __Table 2__ for the susceptibilities of some common paramagnetic materials). | | | |-------------------|--------------------| | Magnetic Behavior | Value of χ | | Diamagnetic | small and negative | | Paramagnetic | small and positive | | Ferromagnetic | large and positive | | Antiferromagnetic | small and positive | Table 1.Magnetic behavior versus values of magnetic susceptibility | | | | | |-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------|--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------| | Compound/ Element[](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/AR/en/search/gadolinium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Gadolinium%20oxide%09&type=product) | Formula | Mass Susceptibility (χm__) (m3/kg)__ | Mass Susceptibility (χm__) (emu/Oe•g) x 10-3__ | | [Cerium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/cerium?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=cerium&type=product) | Ce | 64.84 | 5.160 | | [Chromium(III) oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/chromiumm-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=chromiumm%20oxide&type=product) | Cr2O3 | 24.63 | 1.960 | | [Cobalt(II) oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/cobalt-oxide?focus=products&term=cobalt%20oxide&type=product) | CoO | 61.57 | 4.900 | | [Dysprosium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/dysprosium?focus=products&term=Dysprosium&type=product) | Dy | 1301 | 103.500 | | [Dysprosium oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/dysprosium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Dysprosium%20oxide&type=product) | Dy2O3 | 1126 | 89.600 | | [Erbium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/erbium?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Erbium&type=product) | Er | 556.7 | 44.300 | | [Erbium oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/erbium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Erbium%20oxide&type=product) | Er2O3 | 928.9 | 73.920 | | [Europium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/europium?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Europium&type=product) | Eu | 427.3 | 34.000 | | [Europium oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/europium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Europium%20oxide&type=product) | Eu2O3 | 126.9 | 10.100 | | [Gadolinium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/gadolinium?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Gadolinium&type=product) | Gd | 9488 | 755.000 | | [Gadolinium oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/AR/en/search/gadolinium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Gadolinium%20oxide%09&type=product) | Gd2O3 | 668.5 | 53.200 | | [Iron(II) oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/search/iron%28ii%29-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Iron%28II%29%20oxide%09&type=product) | FeO | 90.48 | 7.200 | | [Iron(III) oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/search/iron%28iii%29-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Iron%28III%29%20oxide%09&type=product) | Fe2O3 | 45.06 | 3.586 | | [Iron(II) sulfide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/search/iron%28ii%29-sulfide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Iron%28II%29%20sulfide%09&type=product) | FeS | 13.5 | 1.074 | | [Neodymium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/neodymium?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Neodymium&type=product) | Nd | 70.72 | 5.628 | | [Neodymium oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/neodymium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Neodymium%20oxide&type=product) | Nd2O3 | 128.2 | 10.200 | | [Potassium superoxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/potassium-superoxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Potassium%20superoxide%09&type=product) | KO2 | 40.59 | 3.230 | | [Praseodymium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/praseodymium?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Praseodymium&type=product) | Pr | 62.96 | 5.010 | | [Samarium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/samarium?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Samarium&type=product) | Sm | 28.02 | 2.230 | | [Samarium oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/samarium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Samarium%20oxide&type=product) | Sm2O3 | 24.98 | 1.988 | | [Terbium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/terbium?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Terbium&type=product) | Tb | 1822 | 146.000 | | [Terbium oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/terbium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Terbium%20oxide&type=product) | Tb2O3 | 984.4 | 78.340 | | [Thulium](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/thulium?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Thulium&type=product) | Tm | 320.4 | 25.500 | | [Thulium oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/thulium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Thulium%20oxide&type=product) | Tm2O3 | 646.5 | 51.444 | | [Vanadium oxide](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/vanadium-oxide?focus=products&page=1&sort=relevance&term=Vanadium%20oxide%09&type=product) | V2O3 | 24.83 | 1.976 | Table 2.Mass susceptibilities of some common paramagnetic materials \[emu = electromagnetic unit (10-3amp·m2), Oe = Oersted 103·4 š-1·amp·m-1)] Antiferromagnetic materials can be distinguished from paramagnetic substances in that the value of χ increases with temperature, whereas χ shows no change or decreases in value as temperature rises for paramagnetic compounds. Ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials will lose magnetic character and become paramagnetic if sufficiently heated. The temperature at which this occurs is defined as the Curie temperature (Tc) for ferromagnetic compounds and the Néel temperature (TN) for antiferromagnetic compounds. Some substances, particularly the later lanthanides, will go from paramagnetic to antiferromagnetic to ferromagnetic as temperature decreases (__Table 3__). | | | | | | |-----------|-------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------| | | Curie Temperature | Néel Temperature | urie Temperature | Néel Temperature | | __Metal__ | __TC (°C)__ | __TN (°C)__ | __TC (K)__ | __TN (K)__ | | Ce | | -260.65 | | 12.5 | | Pr | | -248 | | 25 | | Nd | | -254 | | 19 | | Sm | | -258.35 | | 14.8 | | Eu | | -183 | | 90 | | Gd | 20 | | 293 | | | Tb | -51 | -44 | 222 | 229 | | Dy | -188 | -94 | 85 | 179 | | Ho | -253 | -142 | 20 | 131 | | Er | -253 | -189 | 20 | 84 | | Tm | -248 | -217 | 25 | 56 | Table 3.Curie and Néel temperatures of some lanthanides. There are several unique properties of magnetic materials which are exploited. Changing magnetic fields induce an electrical voltage making magnetic materials a central component of nearly all electrical generators. Magnetic materials are also essential components for information storage in computers, sensors, actuators, and a variety of telecommunications devices ranging from telephones to satellites. Some materials, known as soft magnetic materials, exhibit magnetic properties only when they are exposed to a magnetizing force such as a changing electric field. Soft ferromagnetic materials are the most common of these as they are widely used in both AC and DC circuits to amplify the electrical flux. Magnetic nanopowders have shown great promise in advanced soft magnetic materials.2 Magnetocaloric materials heat up in the presence of a magnetic field and subsequently cool down when removed from the magnetic field. Pure iron, for example will change temperature by 0.5 – 2.0 °C/Tesla. More recently alloys of the formula Gd5SixGe1-x (where x = 0 – 5) will exhibit a 3 – 4 °C/Tesla change.3,4 Some nanomagnetic materials have shown significant magnetocaloric properties. __Related Articles__ - [Complex Hydrides: A New Category of Solid-state Lithium Fast-ion Conductors](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells/complex-hydrides) - [Mesoporous Oxides and Their Applications to Hydrogen Storage](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells/mesoporous-oxides) - [Nanostructured Olivine-based Cathode Materials for Lithium-ion Batteries](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells/nanostructured-olivine-based-cathode-materials) - [Intermetallic Hydrides with High Dissociation Pressure](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells/nanostructured-olivine-based-cathode-materials/intermetallic-hydrides-with-high-dissociation-pressure) - [Molecular Monolayers on Silicon Surfaces](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/biosensors-and-imaging/molecular-monolayers) - [Molybdenum Disulfide: Understanding Hydrogen Evolution Catalysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/chemical-vapor-deposition/molybdenum-disulfide) - [Innovative Materials for Glass Ionomer Cements (GICs): Dental Applications](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/contact-lens-and-dental-manufacturing/innovative-ionomers-for-dental-applications) - [The Progress in Development of Dental Restorative Materials](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/contact-lens-and-dental-manufacturing/the-progress-in-development) - [View More](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/search/facet-search?focus=sitecontent&term=facet-search) Top __Sign In To Continue__ To continue reading please sign in or create an account. 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[Duolink^® PLA - Protein Interaction Technology](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/duolink-proximity-ligation-assay) - [Immunoassay Platform Solutions](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/immunoassay-platform-solutions) - [ELISA Kits](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/immunoassay-platform-solutions/elisa-kits) - [MILLIPLEX^® Kits](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/immunoassay-platform-solutions/milliplex-multiplex-assays-for-luminex-technology) - [SMC^™ Technology](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/immunoassay-platform-solutions/single-molecule-counting-technology) - [Protein Electrophoresis & Western Blotting](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-electrophoresis-and-western-blotting) - [Electrophoresis & Transfer Equipment](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-electrophoresis-and-western-blotting/electrophoresis-and-transfer-equipment) - [Transfer Membranes & Kits](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-electrophoresis-and-western-blotting/transfer-membranes-and-kits) - [Immunodetection Reagents & Substrates](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-electrophoresis-and-western-blotting/immunodetection-reagents-and-substrates) - [Membrane Immunodetection Devices](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-electrophoresis-and-western-blotting/membrane-immunodetection-devices) - [Protein Electrophoresis Gels & Buffers](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-electrophoresis-and-western-blotting/protein-electrophoresis-gels-and-buffers) - [Protein Electrophoresis Gel Stains](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-electrophoresis-and-western-blotting/protein-electrophoresis-gel-stains) - [Protein Markers](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-electrophoresis-and-western-blotting/protein-markers) - 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[Proteases](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/proteins-and-enzymes/proteases) - [Tissue Dissociation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/proteins-and-enzymes/tissue-dissociation) - [Protein Mass Spectrometry](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-mass-spectrometry) - [Protein Purification Chromatography](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-purification-chromatography) - [Antibody Protein Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/antibody-protein-purification) - [Biotinylated Protein Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/biotinylated-protein-purification) - [FLAG^® Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/flag-purification) - [Recombinant/Fusion Tag Protein Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/recombinant-fusion-tag-protein-purification) - 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[Recombinant/Fusion Tag Protein Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/recombinant-fusion-tag-protein-purification) - [Subcellular Fractionation Reagents](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/subcellular-fractionation-reagents) - [Whole Cell Lysis Reagents & Enhancers](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/whole-cell-lysis-reagents-and-enhancers) - [Water Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/water-purification) - [Milli-Q^® Benchtop Water Purification Systems](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/water-purification/milli-q-benchtop-water-purification-systems) - [Milli-Q^® High-Flow Water Purification Systems](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/water-purification/milli-q-high-flow-water-purification-systems) - [Milli-Q^® Clinical Water Purification Systems](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/products/water-purification/milli-q-clinical-water-purification-systems) - 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[Small Molecule HPLC](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/liquid-chromatography/small-molecule-hplc) - [Mass Spectrometry (MS)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/mass-spectrometry) - [Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/nuclear-magnetic-resonance) - [Photometry & Reflectometry](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/photometry-and-reflectometry) - [Sample Preparation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation) - [Sample Filtration](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation/filtration) - [Sample Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation/purification) - [QuEChERS Sample Preparation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation/quechers) - 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[Primary Cell Culture](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-cell-type/primary-cell-culture) - [Stem Cell Culture](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-cell-type/stem-cell-culture) - [Cell Culture by Technique](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique) - [3D Cell Culture](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique/3d-cell-culture) - [Cell Culture Media Preparation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique/cell-culture-media-preparation) - [Cell Growth & Maintenance](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique/cell-growth-and-maintenance) - [Transfection & Gene Editing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique/transfection-and-gene-editing) - [Cell Culture for Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-for-manufacturing) - [Cell Culture Troubleshooting](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-troubleshooting) - [Chemistry & Synthesis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis) - [ADC & Bioconjugation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/adc-and-bioconjugation) - [Lead Discovery](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/lead-discovery) - [Peptide Synthesis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/peptide-synthesis) - [Protein Degradation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/protein-degradation) - [Reaction Design & Optimization](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/reaction-design-and-optimization) - 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[Nucleic Acid Labeling & Detection](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/genomics/nucleic-acid-labeling-and-detection) - [PCR](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/genomics/pcr) - [qPCR](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/genomics/qpcr) - [Sequencing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/genomics/sequencing) - [Materials Science & Engineering](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering) - [3D Bioprinting](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/3d-bioprinting) - [3D Printing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/3d-printing) - [Batteries, Supercapacitors, Fuel Cells](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells) - [Bioelectronics](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/bioelectronics) - [Biosensors & Bioimaging](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/biosensors-and-bioimaging) - 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Services - [Contract Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/services/contract-manufacturing) - [ADC & Bioconjugation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/services/contract-manufacturing/adc-bioconjugation) - [Diagnostic OEM & CMO Services](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/services/ivd-development-manufacturing/diagnostic-oem-cmo) - [mRNA & LNP](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/services/contract-manufacturing/mrna-and-lnp-formulation-ctdmo-services) - [Lipids CDMO Services](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/services/contract-manufacturing/mrna-and-lnp-formulation-ctdmo-services/lipids-cdmo-services) - [Lipid Nanoparticle CDMO Service](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/services/contract-manufacturing/mrna-and-lnp-formulation-ctdmo-services/lipid-nanoparticle-cdmo-services) - [Small Molecule](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/services/contract-manufacturing/small-molecule) - [Activated Polyethylene Glycol (PEGs)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/AR/en/services/contract-manufacturing/peg) - 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