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[Home](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en)[Applications](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/applications)[Materials Science and Engineering](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering) Solid State Synthesis
# Solid State Synthesis
Solid-state synthesis, or the ceramic method, is commonly used to cause a chemical reaction from solid starting materials to form a new solid with a well-defined structure. End products include polycrystalline materials, single crystals, glasses, and thin-film materials that are widely used for energy and electronic applications.
Fine-grain [metal](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/products/materials-science/energy-materials/high-purity-metals) compounds are combined, pelletized, and heated at a controlled temperature for a specific time period. Some metal compounds, such as [metal oxides](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/products/materials-science/energy-materials/oxides-and-ceramics) or [salts](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/products/materials-science/energy-materials/high-purity-salts), require extreme conditions, such as high temperatures and pressure, to initiate reactions in a molten flux or a rapidly condensing vapor phase. This process is often referred to as “shake and bake” or “heat and beat” chemistry.
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Overview
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The reaction rate in solid state synthesis is particularly important to characterize. Solid state reactions must go to completion, as techniques for purification of formed solids are severely limited. The rate of the solid-state reaction depends on the reaction conditions, including the structural properties, shape and surface area of the reactants, the diffusion rate, and the thermodynamic properties associated with the nucleation/reaction. The chemical and physical properties of the final materials are determined by the chemical [precursors](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/products/materials-science/energy-materials/solution-and-vapor-deposition-precursors) and preparation techniques.
Modern preparation techniques for solid state are not limited to variations on the ceramic method. In solid state metathesis, reactions of metal compounds are initiated by an energy source (e.g., flame, ball mill) and propagated by the heat released during the formation of products and byproducts. [Sol-gel](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/products/materials-science/energy-materials/solution-and-vapor-deposition-precursors) methods utilize a concentrated or colloidal solution (the ‘sol’), which is sequentially heated, dried, and aged to form gels, coatings, and nanomaterials. Solvothermal methods involve heating solutions in a pressurized, closed vessel at temperatures above the standard boiling point of the chosen organic solvent; if the solvent is water, this is called the hydrothermal method. Many synthetic methods where a solid material is formed, such as vapor-phase depositions, intercalation, single crystal growth, and nanomaterial syntheses, can be classified as solid state synthesis.
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## Related Articles
- [Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis/solubility-rules-solubility-of-common-ionic-compounds)
Review solubility rules for common ionic compounds in water, including calcium carbonate, barium sulfate, and sodium sulfate, using the provided chart.
- [Using Activated Carbon as a Precious Metal Catalyst Carrier](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis/activated-carbon)
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- [Advanced Materials for Magnetic Cooling](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis/advanced-materials)
Today, near-room-temperature refrigeration is almost entirely based on a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
- [PCTPro-2000: Gas Sorption Analysis Tool](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis/the-pctpro-2000-the-ultimate-tool-for-gas-sorption-analysis)
Gas sorption analysis aids in materials science and consumer product development.
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__Featured Articles__
[Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis/solubility-rules-solubility-of-common-ionic-compounds)
Review solubility rules for common ionic compounds in water, including calcium carbonate, barium sulfate, and sodium sulfate, using the provided chart.
[Using Activated Carbon as a Precious Metal Catalyst Carrier](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis/activated-carbon)
Learn how activated carbon is working as a catalyst support and its advantage.
[Magnetic Properties of Materials](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis/properties)
The three types of magnetic behaviors are paramagnetism where unpaired electrons are random, ferromagnetism where unpaired electrons align, and antiferromagnetism where unpaired electrons align opposite of one another.
[Advanced Materials for Magnetic Cooling](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/CH/en/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis/advanced-materials)
Today, near-room-temperature refrigeration is almost entirely based on a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
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