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Order](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/quick-order) Cart0 [Home](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en)Recent Developments in Silicon Anode Materials for High Performance Lithium-Ion Batteries # Recent Developments in Silicon Anode Materials for High Performance Lithium-Ion Batteries __Xuefeng Song1, Xiaobing Wang2, Zhuang Sun1, Zhuang Sun1, Peng Zhang1, Lian Gao1__ 1State Key Laboratory for Metallic Matrix Composite Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China, 2Baoshan Iron & Steel Co., Ltd. Tube, Pipe and Bar Business, Baoshan District, Shanghai, 201900, China [[email protected]](mailto:[email protected]) ## Introduction Recent demand for electric and hybrid vehicles, coupled with a reduction in prices, has caused lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) to become an increasingly popular form of rechargeable battery technology. According to a new IHS Isuppli Rechargeable Batteries Special Report 2011, global lithium-ion battery revenue is expected to expand to $53.7 billion in 2020, up from $11.8 billion in 2010.1 However, graphite (Prod. Nos. 496596, 636398, and 698830), the traditional anode material in lithium-ion batteries, does not meet the high energy demands of the advanced electric and hybrid automobile market due to its limited theoretical specific capacity of ~370 mAh g−1.2 This has led to the proposal of a large number of anode materials with enhanced storage capacity, high energy density, and improved cycle characteristics for lithium-ion batteries over the last decade.3-7 __Table 1__ summarizes the properties of several different anode materials. Among these advanced anode materials, Si has attracted substantial attention as an alternative for Li-ion batteries, primarily due to 1) its specific capacity of 4,200 mAhg-1 and volume capacity of 9,786 mAh cm-3, the highest known for a LIB anode; 2) relatively low working potential (0.5 V vs. Li/Li+); and 3) the natural abundance of element Si and its environmental benignity.8-10 | | | | | | | | | | | |-----------------------------------------|------|-------|---------|---------|-------|-------|-------|------------|-------| | Anode Materials | C | Li | Si | Sn | Sb | Al | Mg | Li4Ti5O12 | Bi | | Lithiated phase | LiC6 | Li | Li4.4Si | Li4.4Sn | Li3Sb | LiAl | Li3Mg | Li12Ti5O12 | Li3Bi | | Theoretical specific capacity (mAh g-1) | 372 | 3,862 | 4,200 | 994 | 660 | 993 | 3,350 | 175 | 385 | | Theoretical volume capacity (mAh cm-3) | 837 | 2,047 | 9,786 | 7,246 | 4,422 | 2,681 | 4,355 | 613 | 3,765 | | Volume change (%) | 12 | 100 | 320 | 260 | 200 | 96 | 100 | 1 | 215 | | Potential vs. Li (~v) | 0.05 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 1.6 | 0.8 | Table1Comparison of various anode materials. However, the practical implementation of Si anodes is still blocked due to three major problems. First, poor cycle-life of silicon materials results from pulverization during the huge volumetric fluctuations (>300 %) which accompany lithium ion intercalation and deintercalation. Second, drastic irreversible capacity loss and low coulombic efficiency is caused by mechanical fracture of Si anodes during the alloying/dealloying process. Finally, the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) breaks as the nanostructure shrinks during delithiation. This results in the exposure of the fresh silicon surface to the electrolyte and the reformation of the SEI, resulting in the SEI growing thicker with each charge/discharge cycle, as shown in __Figure 1__.11, 12 ![Schematic of SEI formation on a pure silicon surface during charge/discharge cycles](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/marketing/global/images/technical-documents/articles/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells/schematic-of-sei-formation/schematic-of-sei-formation.jpg "Schematic of SEI formation on a pure silicon surface during charge/discharge cycles.") __Figure1.__ Schematic of SEI formation on a pure silicon surface during charge/discharge cycles. ## Nanostructured Silicon Anode Materials To address these issues, several strategies have been developed to accommodate the huge volumetric changes. One effective strategy is to reduce the active particle size to the nanometer range, at which point, nanosized particles can accommodate significant stress without cracking, as well as decreasing the electronic and ionic transport distance. Moreover, the high density of grain boundaries in nanomaterials also provides a fast diffusion path for Li ions and acts as additional Li-storage sites.13-16 Huang *et al.* have shown the effect of Si nanoparticle size on the release of structural stress by *in situ* transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and suggested the stored strain energy from electrochemical reactions was insufficient to drive crack propagation in Si nanoparticles if the particle diameter is <150 nm (__Figure 2__).17 Recently, Kim et al. reported 5, 10, and 20 nm-sized Si nanoparticles can be synthesized under high pressure at 380 °C by using various surfactants.18 Cycling these materials between 0 and 1.5 V at a rate of 0.2 C, a capacity of 2,500 mAh g-1 can be achieved for over 40 charge/discharge cycles with capacity retentions of 71, 81, and 67%, respectively. ![Schematic of the stability of silicon during cycles influenced by the diameter size](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/marketing/global/images/technical-documents/articles/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells/schematic-of-the-stability/schematic-of-the-stability.jpg "Schematic of the stability of silicon during cycles influenced by the diameter size.") __Figure 2.__ Schematic of the stability of silicon during cycles influenced by the diameter size. Kim *et al.* also reported an intriguing 3D bulk Si architecture with a highly interconnected porous structure.19 With 40-nm thick pore-walls, this Si structure can accommodate large strains without pulverization, even after 100 cycles, and maintained a charge capacity of greater than 2,800 mA h g-1 at a rate of 1 C (2,000 mAg‑1). The Cui group at Stanford University reported silicon nanowire and nanotube anodes show high discharge capacities and stability over tens of cycles, with reversible capacities as high as ~3,200 mAhg-1 (for nanowires) and ~3,247 mAhg-1 (for nanotubes).20,21 Nanowire- and nanotube-based electrodes can accommodate material expansion during cycling, as well as forming a direct current pathway when grown directly onto the current collector.10 In addition, Si nanotubes increase the surface area accessible to the electrolyte, by allowing Li ions to intercalate at the interior and exterior of the nanotubes. Despite the advantages of nanostructured Si anodes, nanosized particles also have disadvantages, such as large surface area, high manufacturing costs, and difficulty of handling.22 Even so, nanostructured silicon is regarded as one of the most promising methods to overcome the challenges of silicon anodes for the next generation lithium-ion batteries. ## Si-based Carbon Composite Anode Materials Another approach to overcome the volume change during cycling is to form a composite material.23 The matrix does not experience significant volumetric change, which may buffer the expansion of silicon, maintain the structural integrity of the electrode, and enhance stability by reducing silicon aggregation or electrochemical sintering.10 One promising research area is silicon-based carbon composites, the benefits of which are attributed to the improved electric conductivity and the expansion buffering effect of a carbon matrix.24-27 In addition, the carbon additives have the advantages of exceptional ionic conductivity and Li- storage ability.28,29 However, a conformal carbon coating on Si active material would rupture during cycling, resulting in Si exposure to electrolytes and additional SEI deposition. Therefore, a form of carbon coating that can accommodate the large volume fluctuation of Si is necessary. ![Schematic of yolk–shell structured Si hybrid in which the internal void space can accommodate Si volume expansion during lithiation, protecting the surface of the Si core from SEI deposition](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/marketing/global/images/technical-documents/articles/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells/schematic-of-yolk-shell/schematic-of-yolk-shell.jpg "Schematic of yolk–shell structured Si hybrid in which the internal void space can accommodate Si volume expansion during lithiation, protecting the surface of the Si core from SEI deposition.") __Figure 3.__ Schematic of yolk–shell structured Si hybrid in which the internal void space can accommodate Si volume expansion during lithiation, protecting the surface of the Si core from SEI deposition. One effective approach is the introduction of abundant void space between Si and the carbon shell, as shown in Figure 3.30 Liu *et al.* reported a yolk–shell structured Si@Carbon (__Figure 4A__) with excellent capacity (2,833 mAhg-1 at C/10), cycle-life (1,000 cycles with 74% capacity retention), and coulumbic efficiency (99.84%).31 Si nanoparticles were first coated with a SiO2 layer and then with a polydopamine layer, which was subsequently carbonized to form a nitrogen-doped carbon coating, the yolk–shell Si@Void@C structure was obtained after selectively removing the SiO2 layer by hydrofluoric acid (HF) treatment. Very recently, Li *et al.* reported hollow core shell porous Si–C nanocomposites with a reversible capacity of 650 mA h g-1 after 100 cycles (current density of 1 A g-1), which corresponds to 86% capacity retention.32 The advantage of these unique structures can be attributed to two aspects: 1) the void space between the Si core and the carbon shell allows for the Si nanoparticles to expand upon lithiation without breaking the shell; and 2) the electrical and ionic conductivities of a carbon shell improve the intercalation kinetics while preventing the electrolyte from reaching the Si surface. Another strategy is to produce porous Si–C composites. Si–C porous composites with high capacity (reversible capacities: 1,950 mAh g-1) and long cycling life were reported by Magasinski *et al.*33 A hierarchical bottom-up assembly method was employed to fabricate the porous Si–C architecture in which irregular channels can ensure rapid access of Li ions into the particle bulk, while the particle’s internal porosity can accommodate the large Si volume changes during cycling. Graphene (Prod. Nos. [773697](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/aldrich/773697), [773719](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/aldrich/773719), and [773700](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/aldrich/773700)) has also been used in Si anodes to buffer the volume changes and improve electronic conductivities due to its superior electrical conductivity, high surface area (2,600 m2 g-1), excellent chemical stability, and strong mechanical strength.34-38 Luo *et al.* reported crumpled capsules of graphene wrapped Si nanoparticles with high capacity (940 mAh g-1 after 250 cycles) and good cycling stability (capacity retention: 83%) synthesized by a one-step aerosol-assisted capillary assembly technique.30 The folds and wrinkles in the crumpled graphene layer can accommodate the volume expansion of Si upon lithiation without fracture and protect Si nanoparticles from excessive deposition of the insulating SEI. More recently, Wen *et al.* reported the electrochemical performance of grapheneencapsulated Si anodes could be improved by treating the Si with aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APS) (Prod. No. [281778](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/aldrich/281778)) and replacing carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) with sodium alginate (Prod. No. [W201502](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/aldrich/W201502)), both of which could improve the interactions between the graphene-bonded and encapsulated Si groups and the current collector. These graphene-encapsulated functionalized Si nanoparticles exhibit a capacity of 2,250 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C and of 1,000 mAh g-1 at 10 C, and retain 85% of their initial capacity even after 120 cycles. Si nanoparticles embedded in a 3D graphene scaffold (__Figure 4B__) were reported by Zhao et al., and exhibited a reversible capacity of approximately 3,200 mA g-1 (current density: 1 A g-1), retaining 83% of its theoretical capacity after 150 cycles.39 In this case, the 3D conducting graphenic scaffold was constructed with aligned graphene sheets derived from exfoliated graphene oxide by a facile wet chemical method. The ability to maintain a high capacity in this anode material was attributed to the excellent cross-plane ion diffusivity which shortens Li diffusion paths throughout the electrode, allowing full access to the interior and rapid lithiation and delithiation reactions in the Si nanoparticles. Xin et al. also reported the synthesis of a Si/graphene nanocomposite with a 3D porous architecture through a series of chemical processes.40 This architecture delivers a reversible capacity of 900 mAh g-1 with very little fading after 30 cycles even at charge rates of 1 A g-1. The 3D graphene-based composite displays superior cycling stability and high rate performance due to enhancement of the electrical conductivity of the electrode by the 3D graphene network, demonstrating superior rate characteristics over the 2D nanostructure. ![A schematic drawing of an individual Si@Void@C particle (top) and in situ TEM images of synthesized Si@Void@C powder before and after lithiation and delithiation (bottom). Reproduced with permission from Reference 31. Copyright 2012 American Chemical Society. B) A schematic drawing (top) of a section of a composite electrode material constructed with a graphenic scaffold with in-plane carbon vacancy defects. (Si: large particles; Li ions: small spheres) and SEM image (bottom) of the cross-section of a Si–3D graphenic scaffold, the inset shows Si nanoparticles embedded between graphene sheets uniformly. Adapted from Reference 39. Copyright 2011 Wiley-VCH.](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/marketing/global/images/technical-documents/articles/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells/schematic-drawing/schematic-drawing.jpg "A schematic drawing of an individual Si@Void@C particle (top) and in situ TEM images of synthesized Si@Void@C powder before and after lithiation and delithiation (bottom). Reproduced with permission from Reference 31. Copyright 2012 American Chemical Society. B) A schematic drawing (top) of a section of a composite electrode material constructed with a graphenic scaffold with in-plane carbon vacancy defects. (Si: large particles; Li ions: small spheres) and SEM image (bottom) of the cross-section of a Si–3D graphenic scaffold, the inset shows Si nanoparticles embedded between graphene sheets uniformly. Adapted from Reference 39. Copyright 2011 Wiley-VCH.") __Figure 4. A)__A schematic drawing of an individual Si@Void@C particle (top) and in situ TEM images of synthesized Si@Void@C powder before and after lithiation and delithiation (bottom). Reproduced with permission from Reference 31. Copyright 2012 American Chemical Society. B) A schematic drawing (top) of a section of a composite electrode material constructed with a graphenic scaffold with in-plane carbon vacancy defects. (Si: large particles; Li ions: small spheres) and SEM image (bottom) of the cross-section of a Si–3D graphenic scaffold, the inset shows Si nanoparticles embedded between graphene sheets uniformly. Adapted from Reference 39. Copyright 2011 Wiley-VCH. ## Future Directions Very recently, Wu et al. reported ideal 3D porous Si/conductive polymer hydrogel composite electrodes with relatively stable reversible capacity (1,600 mAh g-1 after 1,000 deep cycles) and very stable performance (cycled 5,000 times without significant capacity decay).2 The porous hierarchical hydrogel framework has significant advantages: the conductive polymer 3D network provides fast electronic and ionic transfer channels, in addition to porous space for volume expansion of Si particles. This fabrication method of *in situ* polymerization shows scalability and promise for industrial commercialization, as shown in __Figure 5__. ![Schematic illustration of 3D porous Si nanoparticles/conductive polymer hydrogel composite electrodes](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/marketing/global/images/technical-documents/articles/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells/schematic-illustration/schematic-illustration.jpg "Schematic illustration of 3D porous Si nanoparticles/conductive polymer hydrogel composite electrodes (A), in which each Si nanoparticle is encapsulated within a conductive polymer surface coating and is further connected to the highly porous hydrogel framework, and photographs (B–D) showing the key steps of the electrode fabrication process. Adapted from Reference 2. Copyright 2013 Nature Publishing Group.") __Figure 5.__ Schematic illustration of 3D porous Si nanoparticles/conductive polymer hydrogel composite electrodes (A), in which each Si nanoparticle is encapsulated within a conductive polymer surface coating and is further connected to the highly porous hydrogel framework, and photographs (B–D) showing the key steps of the electrode fabrication process. Adapted from Reference 2. Copyright 2013 Nature Publishing Group. ## Summary and Challenges Silicon is one of the most promising anode materials for lithium-ion batteries due to advantages including its highest known capacity and relatively low working potential. However, the problem of extremely large volumetric change must be overcome before silicon anodes can be utilized in practical lithium batteries. In this micro-review, various silicon anodes and silicon-based composite anodes with improved electrochemical performance have been elucidated, showing two viable solutions to circumvent the Si anode. Further research is still needed to address the practical requirements for Si anodes, including high power density, long life, simple manufacturing, and low cost. ## Acknowledgments The authors greatly acknowledge the financial support by the Shanghai Municipal Natural Science Foundation (12ZR1414300), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51172142, 51302169), the Starting Foundation for New Teacher of Shanghai Jiao Tong University (12X100040119), the Scientific Research Foundation for Returned Overseas Chinese Scholars, State Education Ministry, and the Third Phase of 211 Project for Advanced Materials Science (WS3116205007). ## Materials Sorry, an unexpected error has occurred Response not successful: Received status code 500 ### References 1\. OMDIA technology. \[Internet]. Available from: [https://technology.informa.com/](https://technology.informa.com/) 2\. Wu H, Yu G, Pan L, Liu N, McDowell MT, Bao Z, Cui Y. 2013. Stable Li-ion battery anodes by in-situ polymerization of conducting hydrogel to conformally coat silicon nanoparticles. Nat Commun. 4(1): [https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2941](https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2941) 3\. Song X, Pan J, Xiao L, Gao L, Mathur S. 2013. A hierarchical hybrid design for high performance tin based Li-ion battery anodes. Nanotechnology. 24(20):205401. [https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/24/20/205401](https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/24/20/205401) 4\. Tang K, White RJ, Mu X, Titirici M, van?Aken PA, Maier J. 2012. Hollow Carbon Nanospheres with a High Rate Capability for Lithium-Based Batteries. ChemSusChem. 5(2):400-403. [https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201100609](https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201100609) 5\. Yi T, Jiang L, Shu J, Yue C, Zhu R, Qiao H. 2010. Recent development and application of Li4Ti5O12 as anode material of lithium ion battery. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 71(9):1236-1242. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpcs.2010.05.001](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpcs.2010.05.001) 6\. Trifonova A, Wachtler M, Winter M, Besenhard JO. 2002. Sn-Sb and Sn-Bi alloys as anode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Ionics. 8(5-6):321-328. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02376044](https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02376044) 7\. Yan J, Huang H, Zhang J, Liu Z, Yang Y. 2005. A study of novel anode material CoS2 for lithium ion battery. Journal of Power Sources. 146(1-2):264-269. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.03.144](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.03.144) 8\. Zhang B, Zhong J, Zhang B, Cheng Z. 2011. Mechanism of formation of anodic excursion peaks on lead electrode in sulfuric acid. Journal of Power Sources. 196(13):5719-5724. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.045](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.045) 9\. 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Kim I, Blomgren GE, Kumta PN. 2003. Nanostructured Si/TiB\[sub 2] Composite Anodes for Li-Ion Batteries. Electrochem. Solid-State Lett.. 6(8):A157. [https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1584212](https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1584212) 14\. Beaulieu LY, Larcher D, Dunlap RA, Dahn JR. 2000. Reaction of Li with Grain-Boundary Atoms in Nanostructured Compounds. J. Electrochem. Soc.. 147(9):3206. [https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1393884](https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1393884) 15\. Todd ADW, Ferguson PP, Barker JG, Fleischauer MD, Dahn JR. 2009. Comparison of Mechanically Milled and Sputter Deposited Tin?Cobalt?Carbon Alloys Using Small Angle Neutron Scattering. J. Electrochem. Soc.. 156(12):A1034. [https://doi.org/10.1149/1.3239988](https://doi.org/10.1149/1.3239988) 16\. Yang J. 1996. Small particle size multiphase Li-alloy anodes for lithium-ionbatteries. Solid State Ionics. 90(1-4):281-287. [https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-2738(96)00389-x](https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-2738%2896%2900389-x) 17\. 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Park M, Kim MG, Joo J, Kim K, Kim J, Ahn S, Cui Y, Cho J. 2009. Silicon Nanotube Battery Anodes. Nano Lett.. 9(11):3844-3847. [https://doi.org/10.1021/nl902058c](https://doi.org/10.1021/nl902058c) 22\. Aricò AS, Bruce P, Scrosati B, Tarascon J, van Schalkwijk W. 2005. Nanostructured materials for advanced energy conversion and storage devices. Nature Mater. 4(5):366-377. [https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat1368](https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat1368) 23\. Liu HK, Guo ZP, Wang JZ, Konstantinov K. 2010. Si-based anode materials for lithium rechargeable batteries. J. Mater. Chem.. 20(45):10055. [https://doi.org/10.1039/c0jm01702g](https://doi.org/10.1039/c0jm01702g) 24\. Dimov N, Kugino S, Yoshio M. 2003. Carbon-coated silicon as anode material for lithium ion batteries: advantages and limitations. Electrochimica Acta. 48(11):1579-1587. [https://doi.org/10.1016/s0013-4686(03)00030-6](https://doi.org/10.1016/s0013-4686%2803%2900030-6) 25\. Yoshio M, Wang H, Fukuda K, Umeno T, Dimov N, Ogumi Z. 2002. 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[Recombinant/Fusion Tag Protein Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/recombinant-fusion-tag-protein-purification) - [Subcellular Fractionation Reagents](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/subcellular-fractionation-reagents) - [Whole Cell Lysis Reagents & Enhancers](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/products/protein-biology/protein-sample-prep/whole-cell-lysis-reagents-and-enhancers) - [Water Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/products/water-purification) - [Milli-Q<sup>®</sup> Benchtop Water Purification Systems](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/products/water-purification/milli-q-benchtop-water-purification-systems) - [Milli-Q<sup>®</sup> High-Flow Water Purification Systems](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/products/water-purification/milli-q-high-flow-water-purification-systems) - [Milli-Q<sup>®</sup> Clinical Water Purification Systems](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/products/water-purification/milli-q-clinical-water-purification-systems) - [Milli-Q<sup>®</sup> Consumables](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/products/water-purification/milli-q-consumables) - [Milli-Q<sup>®</sup> Accessories](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/products/water-purification/milli-q-accessories) - Applications - [Analytical Chemistry](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry) - [Atomic Spectroscopy](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/atomic-spectroscopy) - [Calibration, Qualification, Validation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/calibration-qualification-and-validation) - [Gas Chromatography (GC)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/gas-chromatography) - [Liquid Chromatography](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/liquid-chromatography) - [Large Molecule HPLC](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/liquid-chromatography/large-molecule-hplc) - [Low Pressure Liquid Chromatography](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/liquid-chromatography/low-pressure-liquid-chromatography) - [Small Molecule HPLC](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/liquid-chromatography/small-molecule-hplc) - [Mass Spectrometry (MS)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/mass-spectrometry) - [Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/nuclear-magnetic-resonance) - [Photometry & Reflectometry](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/photometry-and-reflectometry) - [Sample Preparation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation) - [Sample Filtration](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation/filtration) - [Sample Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation/purification) - [QuEChERS Sample Preparation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation/quechers) - [Solid Phase Extraction](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation/solid-phase-extraction) - [Solid Phase Microextraction](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/sample-preparation/solid-phase-microextraction) - [Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/thin-layer-chromatography) - [Titration & Karl Fischer](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/titration-and-karl-fischer) - [Water for Analytical Chemistry](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/water-purification/water-analytical-chemistry) - [Wet Chemical Analysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/analytical-chemistry/wet-chemical-analysis) - [Cell Culture & Analysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis) - [Cell Analysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-analysis) - [Cell-based Assays](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-analysis/cell-based-assays) - [Cell Counting & Health analysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-analysis/cell-counting-and-health-analysis) - [Imaging Analysis & Live Cell Imaging](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-analysis/imaging-analysis-and-live-cell-imaging) - [Cell Culture by Cell Type](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-cell-type) - [Mammalian Cell Culture](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-cell-type/mammalian-cell-culture) - [Microbial Cell Culture](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-cell-type/microbial-cell-culture) - [Plant Tissue Culture](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-cell-type/plant-tissue-culture) - [Primary Cell Culture](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-cell-type/primary-cell-culture) - [Stem Cell Culture](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-cell-type/stem-cell-culture) - [Cell Culture by Technique](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique) - [3D Cell Culture](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique/3d-cell-culture) - [Cell Culture Media Preparation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique/cell-culture-media-preparation) - [Cell Growth & Maintenance](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique/cell-growth-and-maintenance) - [Transfection & Gene Editing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-by-technique/transfection-and-gene-editing) - [Cell Culture for Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-for-manufacturing) - [Cell Culture Troubleshooting](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/cell-culture-and-cell-culture-analysis/cell-culture-troubleshooting) - [Chemistry & Synthesis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis) - [ADC & Bioconjugation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/adc-and-bioconjugation) - [Lead Discovery](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/lead-discovery) - [Peptide Synthesis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/peptide-synthesis) - [Protein Degradation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/protein-degradation) - [Reaction Design & Optimization](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/reaction-design-and-optimization) - [Synthetic Methods](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/synthetic-methods) - [C-H Functionalization](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/synthetic-methods/ch-functionalization) - [Cross Coupling](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/synthetic-methods/cross-coupling) - [Fluorination](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/synthetic-methods/fluorination) - [Metathesis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/synthetic-methods/metathesis) - [Organic Reaction Toolbox](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/synthetic-methods/organic-reaction-toolbox) - [Photocatalysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/chemistry-and-synthesis/synthetic-methods/photocatalysis) - [Clinical & Diagnostics](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/clinical-testing-and-diagnostics-manufacturing) - [Bacteriology](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/clinical-testing-and-diagnostics-manufacturing/bacteriology) - [Blood Typing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/clinical-testing-and-diagnostics-manufacturing/blood-typing) - [Clinical & Forensics Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/clinical-testing-and-diagnostics-manufacturing/clinical-and-forensic-testing) - [Cytology & Cytodiagnosis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/clinical-testing-and-diagnostics-manufacturing/cytology-and-microscopy) - [Diagnostic Immunohistochemistry](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/clinical-testing-and-diagnostics-manufacturing/diagnostic-immunohistochemistry) - [Hematology](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/clinical-testing-and-diagnostics-manufacturing/hematology) - [Histology/Histopathology](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/clinical-testing-and-diagnostics-manufacturing/histology) - [IVD Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/clinical-testing-and-diagnostics-manufacturing/ivd-manufacturing) - [Water for Clinical Diagnostics](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/water-purification/water-clinical-diagnostics) - [Environmental & Cannabis Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/environmental-testing-and-industrial-hygiene) - [Air Sampling & Monitoring](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/environmental-testing-and-industrial-hygiene/air-testing) - [Cannabis Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/environmental-testing-and-industrial-hygiene/cannabis-testing) - [Cannabinoids & Potency](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/environmental-testing-and-industrial-hygiene/cannabis-testing/cannabinoid-profiling-potency-testing) - [Pesticides & Mycotoxins](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/environmental-testing-and-industrial-hygiene/cannabis-testing/pesticides-mycotoxins-in-cannabis) - [Terpenes](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/environmental-testing-and-industrial-hygiene/cannabis-testing/terpenes-cannabis) - [Drinking Water Testing​](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/environmental-testing-and-industrial-hygiene/drinking-water-testing) - [Soil, Solid Waste, & Groundwater Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/environmental-testing-and-industrial-hygiene/soil-solid-waste-groundwater-testing) - [Waste Water & Process Water Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/environmental-testing-and-industrial-hygiene/waste-water-and-process-water-testing) - [Food & Beverage Testing & Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/food-and-beverage-testing-and-manufacturing) - [Chemical Analysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/food-and-beverage-testing-and-manufacturing/chemical-analysis-for-food-and-beverage) - [Flavor & Fragrance Formulation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/food-and-beverage-testing-and-manufacturing/flavor-and-fragrance-formulation) - [Microbiological Analysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/food-and-beverage-testing-and-manufacturing/microbiological-analysis-for-food-and-beverage) - [Regulatory Compliance​](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/food-and-beverage-testing-and-manufacturing/regulatory-compliance-for-food-and-beverage) - [Genomics](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics) - [Advanced Gene Editing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/advanced-gene-editing) - [Cloning & Expression](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/cloning-and-expression) - [DNA & RNA Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/dna-and-rna-purification) - [Epigenetics](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/epigenetics) - [Functional Genomics Screening](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/functional-genomics-screening) - [Gene Expression & Silencing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/gene-expression-and-silencing) - [Next Gen Sequencing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/next-gen-sequencing) - [Nucleic Acid Gel Electrophoresis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/nucleic-acid-gel-electrophoresis) - [Nucleic Acid Labeling & Detection](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/nucleic-acid-labeling-and-detection) - [PCR](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/pcr) - [qPCR](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/qpcr) - [Sequencing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/genomics/sequencing) - [Materials Science & Engineering](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering) - [3D Bioprinting](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/3d-bioprinting) - [3D Printing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/3d-printing) - [Batteries, Supercapacitors, Fuel Cells](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/batteries-supercapacitors-and-fuel-cells) - [Bioelectronics](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/bioelectronics) - [Biosensors & Bioimaging](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/biosensors-and-bioimaging) - [Chemical Vapor Deposition](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/chemical-vapor-deposition) - [Contact Lens & Dental Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/contact-lens-and-dental-manufacturing) - [Drug Delivery](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/drug-delivery) - [Electron Microscopy](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/electron-microscopy) - [Microelectronics & Nanoelectronics](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/microelectronics-and-nanoelectronics) - [Nanoparticle & Microparticle Synthesis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/nanoparticle-and-microparticle-synthesis) - [Organic Electronics](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/organic-electronics) - [Photovoltaics & Solar Cells](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/photovoltaics-and-solar-cells) - [Polymer Synthesis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/polymer-synthesis) - [Solid State Synthesis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/solid-state-synthesis) - [Tissue Engineering](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/materials-science-and-engineering/tissue-engineering) - [Microbiological Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing) - [Bioburden Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/bioburden-testing) - [Culture Media Preparation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/microbial-culture-media-preparation) - [Media Fill (APS)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/media-fills) - [Microbial Water Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/microbial-water-testing) - [Mycoplasma Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/mycoplasma-testing) - [Pathogen & Spoilage Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/pathogen-and-spoilage-testing) - [Pyrogen Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/pyrogen-testing) - [Sterility Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/sterility-testing) - [Surface & Personnel Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/surface-and-personnel-testing) - [Viable Air Monitoring](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/microbiological-testing/viable-air-monitoring) - [mAbs Development & Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies) - [Antibody Drug Discovery](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/antibody-drug-discovery) - [Lead Selection & Optimization](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/antibody-drug-discovery/lead-discovery) - [Preclinical Development](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/antibody-drug-discovery/preclinical-development) - [Target Discovery](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/antibody-drug-discovery/target-discovery) - [Characterization & Quality Control](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/characterization-and-quality-control) - [Aggregate Analysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/characterization-and-quality-control/aggregate-analysis) - [Intact Mass Analysis](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/characterization-and-quality-control/intact-mass-analysis) - [Peptide Mapping](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/characterization-and-quality-control/peptide-mapping) - [Post-Translational Modification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/characterization-and-quality-control/post-translational-modification-analysis) - [Titer Determination](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/characterization-and-quality-control/titer-determination) - [Process Development, Manufacturing, Formulation & Final Fill](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/process-development-manufacturing) - [Downstream Processing (DSP)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/process-development-manufacturing/downstream-processing-mabs) - [Formulation & Final Fill](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/process-development-manufacturing/formulation-final-fill-mabs) - [Upstream Processing (USP)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/monoclonal-antibodies/process-development-manufacturing/upstream-processing-mabs) - [mRNA Development & Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/mrna-development-manufacturing) - [mRNA Analytical & Quality Control](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/mrna-development-manufacturing/mrna-analytical-quality-control) - 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[Biopharma 4.0](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/biopharma-4-0) - [Bioprocessing Automation & Control Software](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/biopharma-4-0/bioprocessing-automation-control-software) - [Bioprocessing Data Analytics Software](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/biopharma-4-0/bioprocessing-data-analytics-software) - [Closed Processing for Biomanufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/biopharma-4-0/closed-processing-for-biomanufacturing) - [Intensified & Continuous Upstream (USP) Processing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/biopharma-4-0/intensified-upstream-processing) - [Intensified & Continuous Downstream (DSP) Processing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/biopharma-4-0/intensified-continuous-downstream-processing) - [Process Analytical Technology (PAT)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/integrated-offerings/biopharma-4-0/process-analytical-technology) - [Biotech Resource Hub](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/biotech-resource-hub) - [Discovery](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/biotech-resource-hub/discovery) - [Pre-clinical](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/biotech-resource-hub/pre-clinical) - [Phase I-II](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/biotech-resource-hub/phase-i-ii) - [Phase III and Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/biotech-resource-hub/phase-iii-and-manufacturing) - [Regulatory](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/biotech-resource-hub/regulatory) - [Startup Programs](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/biotech-resource-hub/startup-programs) - 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[Sterile Filtration Strategies](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/classical-pharma-manufacturing/sterile-filtration-strategies) - [Gene Therapy Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/gene-therapy-manufacturing) - [Viral Vector Upstream Processing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/gene-therapy-manufacturing/viral-vector-upstream-processing) - [Viral Vector Downstream Processing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/gene-therapy-manufacturing/viral-vector-downstream-processing) - [Viral Vector Formulation & Final Fill](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/gene-therapy-manufacturing/viral-vector-formulation-and-final-fill) - [Viral Vector Characterization & Biosafety Testing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/pharmaceutical-and-biopharmaceutical-manufacturing/gene-therapy-manufacturing/viral-vector-characterization-and-biosafety-testing) - 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[Interrogation of Protein Pathways](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/protein-biology/interrogation-protein-pathways) - [Lysis & Protein Extraction](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/protein-biology/lysis-and-protein-extraction) - [Protein & Nucleic Acid Interactions](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/protein-biology/protein-and-nucleic-acid-interactions) - [Protein Concentration & Buffer Exchange](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/protein-biology/protein-concentration-and-buffer-exchange) - [Protein Expression](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/protein-biology/protein-expression) - [Protein Labeling & Modification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/protein-biology/protein-labeling-and-modification) - [Protein Pulldown](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/protein-biology/protein-pulldown) - [Protein Purification](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/applications/protein-biology/protein-purification) - 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Services - [Contract Manufacturing](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/services/contract-manufacturing) - [ADC & Bioconjugation](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/services/contract-manufacturing/adc-bioconjugation) - [Diagnostic OEM & CMO Services](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/services/ivd-development-manufacturing/diagnostic-oem-cmo) - [mRNA & LNP](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/services/contract-manufacturing/mrna-and-lnp-formulation-ctdmo-services) - [Lipids CDMO Services](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/services/contract-manufacturing/mrna-and-lnp-formulation-ctdmo-services/lipids-cdmo-services) - [Lipid Nanoparticle CDMO Service](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/services/contract-manufacturing/mrna-and-lnp-formulation-ctdmo-services/lipid-nanoparticle-cdmo-services) - [Small Molecule](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/services/contract-manufacturing/small-molecule) - [Activated Polyethylene Glycol (PEGs)](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/services/contract-manufacturing/peg) - 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