Effects of chronic ammonia exposure on ammonia metabolism and excretion in marine medaka Oryzias melastigma.

Ammonia is highly toxic to aquatic organisms, but whether ammonia excretion or ammonia metabolism to less toxic compounds is the major strategy for detoxification in marine fish against chronic ammonia exposure is unclear to date. In this study, we investigated the metabolism and excretion of ammonia in marine medaka Oryzias melastigma during chronic ammonia exposure. The fish were exposed to 0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.6, and 1.1 mmol l